| Over the years many issues have been debated | | | | structure. If a curriculum is based on questions, |
| in regards to their impact on student learning and | | | | then class time must be based on seeking |
| engagement in the middle years. It is now at the | | | | answers to those questions. If students are not |
| stage that it is becoming too complicated for the | | | | given responsibility for answering the questions |
| average teacher to sift through and work out | | | | themselves, then integrated curriculum ceases to |
| what is important, and where to begin to make a | | | | have significance. Why would you spend your |
| start. Although a large body of research has been | | | | time seeking an answer that you knew was going |
| conducted, it has rarely been synthesized into a | | | | to be corrected soon anyway? If we are dealing |
| usable form that can be applied easily by | | | | with significant problems then there will not be |
| teachers. This paper aims to sort through the | | | | only one answer, so multiple interpretations must |
| various issues at play, and determine which are | | | | be allowed. Simple answers only occur for simple |
| really important for the average classroom | | | | problems, not complex and significant ones. So, if |
| teacher to understand and to implement. | | | | students are given responsibility for seeking |
| One of the most helpful statements on middle | | | | answers to questions, then the class structure |
| schooling that I have ever found was written by | | | | must be arranged to encourage this. Students |
| American educator, James Beane in 1996: | | | | must be given time to seek answers and the |
| "We believe that young people have a right to be | | | | responsibility for finding answers. If they have |
| intelligent, to be well informed, to search for | | | | truly been given the responsibility for finding |
| meaning in their world, to be engaged with | | | | answers to significant problems, then the |
| significant issues, to do authentic work, to learn | | | | authority structure must not dictate when, where, |
| the whole story, to think critically, to form values, | | | | how and in what context they may work. This |
| to make judgments, to be respected." (Beane, | | | | would negate their responsibility for finding the |
| 1996, p.48) | | | | answers. The class timetable and authority |
| Instead of speaking in terms of curriculum | | | | structure must necessarily be negotiated with |
| development or organizational structure, Beane | | | | individuals in their situation rather than being applied |
| addresses directly the rights and needs of young | | | | in a top-down structure that lacks flexibility. |
| adolescents. These are incidentally rights that we | | | | When students come up with real answers to |
| adults tend to take for granted. We get | | | | significant questions, it is unlikely that all of their |
| frustrated at work when what we are doing | | | | answers will be the same. Traditional assessment |
| seems to require a low level of thinking and | | | | structures are often based on producing the |
| engagement from us, has very little meaning in | | | | 'correct' answer to a question. How could these |
| the real world, is never going to be used for | | | | structures fit with questions that do not produce |
| anything significant, shows only a partial view of | | | | 'correct' answers? Instead we must use authentic |
| the issue, requires no informed judgments from | | | | assessment - that which involves integration of |
| us, and when we do not have the respect of our | | | | knowledge and has value beyond mere evaluation |
| colleagues and bosses. It is therefore hardly | | | | purposes. If we are using real life questions, then |
| surprising that young adolescents experience | | | | it makes sense that we would assess their real |
| similar frustrations when we make their schooling | | | | life answers and applications. This may mean that |
| such that they feel stupid, poorly informed, unable | | | | every student produces different assessment |
| to do anything of real world significance, forced to | | | | forms. We must be flexible, and not think that |
| sit for assessment that has little point, little | | | | one form is better than another. Students must |
| significance and no relation to tasks in the real | | | | be allowed to demonstrate what they have |
| world, unable to express opinions and make | | | | learned in real-life contexts, over time periods, and |
| judgments, and failing to earn any respect from | | | | on multiple occasions. |
| peers or adults. Frankly, if I was forced to work | | | | So how do these address student developmental |
| under those conditions I would have resigned long | | | | needs? |
| ago. | | | | Competence and achievement |
| It comes as no surprise therefore that we | | | | Students undergoing a program of curriculum |
| experience significant disengagement from | | | | integration achieve at a higher level than their |
| schooling by young adolescents. Imagine the | | | | peers (Aitkin, 1942 - in Beane, 1997). Achieving at |
| average class of year nine boys and you will | | | | higher levels increases the sense of competence. |
| generally not be imagining students who are | | | | "Curriculum integration is known for giving more |
| excited about learning, motivated about their | | | | young people more access to knowledge; for |
| assessment and involved in school decision making. | | | | encouraging them to be intelligent, to use their |
| They are unlikely to put in more than the | | | | minds critically and creatively; for using knowledge |
| minimum effort, and that only if they consider the | | | | in more sophisticated ways; and for giving young |
| subject studied to be important for later | | | | people a chance to use knowledge for problem |
| schooling, university or career moves in spite of | | | | solving" (Beane, 1996, p.10). This can cause |
| its seeming irrelevance now. It requires a | | | | problems in certain spheres as some adults fear |
| significant level of dedication and motivation to | | | | giving students too much access to knowledge |
| continue on working and learning in a situation that | | | | and power. |
| actively opposes most self-determining | | | | Self-exploration and definition |
| behaviours. | | | | "The central focus of curriculum integration is the |
| A number of educational theorists have written | | | | search for self- and social meaning" (Beane, 1995, |
| about adolescent developmental needs. These | | | | p.616). Therefore by definition it meets the |
| have been studied to determine what it is that | | | | developmental needs for self exploration and |
| adolescents need to be engaged in schooling. A | | | | definition, as well as growing awareness of the |
| relatively comprehensive list includes the following: | | | | social and political world. |
| The need for - | | | | Positive social interactions with peers and adults |
| 1. Competence and achievement thereby | | | | According to Beane, the emphasis in IC is on |
| improving self-confidence. | | | | teacher-student and student-student collaboration, |
| 2. Self-exploration and definition opportunities. | | | | which is necessary for curriculum planning and |
| 3. Positive social interaction with adults and peers. | | | | negotiation. Themes such as "getting along with |
| 4. Physical activity. | | | | others" also promote this (Beane, 1997). |
| 5. Meaningful participation in families, school and | | | | Physical Activity |
| communities. | | | | IC does not seem to promote physical activity |
| 6. Routine, structure and clear limits, together with | | | | except as a by-product of a constructivist |
| growth towards independence. | | | | approach. |
| 7. Diversity. | | | | Meaningful participation in families, school and |
| 8. Opportunities to explore concepts and generate | | | | communities. |
| ideas from concrete experiences. To think in | | | | While there is not clear data showing an increase |
| ways that become more abstract and reflective. | | | | in family, school and community participation, the |
| 9. Opportunities to explore values and decision | | | | work by Pate, Homestead and McGinnis (1997) |
| making, and growing awareness of the social and | | | | indicates that students in an IC classroom look |
| political world. | | | | increasingly towards families and communities for |
| 10. Creative expression. | | | | information and resources. In their year-long |
| (Eyers, 1992; NMSA, 2000a; Van Hoose and | | | | study, the McHome team found that family and |
| Strahan, 1988). | | | | community involvement increased during their IC |
| A good summary of this is the finding by the | | | | program. |
| Schools Council in 1994 that in order to be | | | | Routine, structure and clear limits, together with |
| effective, "middle schooling should be challenging, | | | | growth towards independence. |
| filled with variety, responsive to the learning | | | | Setting up a democratic classroom based on |
| needs, interests and concerns of young | | | | notions of rights and responsibilities is fundamental |
| adolescents and empower its students with | | | | to any IC program (Apple and Beane, 1995). |
| self-confidence and a respect for learning" | | | | Ideally, the class members would decide together |
| (Berkley, 1994, p.10). | | | | on regulations for conduct (Pate, Homestead and |
| Many school organizational aspects have been | | | | McGinnis, 1997), thereby understanding and |
| considered to determine their impact on these | | | | appreciating the routines and limits. In an IC |
| developmental needs. These include: authority and | | | | classroom students would also negotiate the |
| power structure, personnel practices, professional | | | | curriculum with the classroom teacher and thus |
| development of teachers, curriculum design, | | | | have a clear understanding of the structure from |
| pedagogical practices, assessment and evaluation, | | | | the start (Beane, 1997). |
| parental and community involvement, scheduling | | | | Diversity. |
| practices and teacher/student ratios in learning | | | | Diversity in IC comes from a curriculum that deals |
| communities. See the Figure 1 below for a | | | | directly with student concerns. Student concerns |
| comparison of these organisational aspects | | | | are varied (Beane, 1997), and often show |
| between "traditional schooling" and what is being | | | | evidence of deep thinking about the world that |
| termed "middle schooling". | | | | we are living in. The very nature of these |
| Organizational Aspect Traditional schooling Middle | | | | concerns demands diversity in curriculum. This |
| schooling | | | | need for diversity is actually a concern for some |
| Authority/power structure Top down Democratic. | | | | teachers who feel ill-prepared for dealing with a |
| Teachers empowered as decision makers. | | | | curriculum with which they have no familiarity |
| Student input in all decisions. Negotiation as the | | | | (George, 1996). However, teachers with a real |
| key (Apple and Beane, 1995). | | | | concern for adolescents need to be prepared to |
| Personnel practices Individual teachers / subject | | | | put aside their fears and insecurities, and focus |
| teams Inter-disciplinary teams (Maciver, 1990). | | | | instead on what is best for their students. |
| Professional development Little/none Regular and | | | | Opportunities to explore concepts and generate |
| often as the basis for improving practice. | | | | ideas from concrete experiences. |
| Curriculum design Discipline based Integrated | | | | To think in ways that become more abstract and |
| curriculum based on students personal and social | | | | reflective. |
| concerns without regard for subject-area | | | | According to Beane (1991, p.9), "genuine learning |
| boundaries (Beane, 1996). | | | | involves interaction with the environment in such a |
| Pedagogical practices Lectures and textbooks | | | | way that what we experience becomes |
| Based on constructivist principles (hands on, minds | | | | integrated into our system of meaning". This |
| on) and Project/ problem based learning (Pate, | | | | interaction with the environment is fundamental to |
| Homestead and McGinnis, 1997). | | | | a constructive approach of exploring concepts and |
| Assessment and evaluation Tests Authentic | | | | generating ideas from concrete experiences |
| Assessment: disciplined inquiry, integration of | | | | (Appleton, 1997; Tippins, Tobin and Nichols, 1995). |
| knowledge and value beyond evaluation (Burke, | | | | Beane also argues that as IC opens a way for |
| 1997). | | | | critical inquiry into real issues, knowledge is pushed |
| Parent and community involvement Little/none | | | | to the level of problem solving and application |
| High (Fry, 1994). | | | | (Beane, 1997). This would promote abstract and |
| Scheduling practices 40 or 50 minute set periods | | | | reflective thinking. |
| Flexible timetable involving large blocks of time | | | | Opportunities to explore values and decision |
| (Hackman and Valentine, 1998; Fogarty, 1997). | | | | making, and growing awareness of the social and |
| Learning communities Large student: teacher ratio | | | | political world. |
| Small learning communities (Felner et al, 1997a). | | | | IC provides for exploration of values and decision |
| Many of the organisational aspects of middle | | | | making in both the personal and social worlds, |
| schooling included above were recommendations | | | | because of its basis in the personal and social |
| of the Carnegie Council's "Turning Points" report: | | | | concerns of students. True curriculum integration |
| National and State Recommendations for | | | | fits closely with Symes and Preston's notion of an |
| Transforming Middle -Grades Education | | | | emancipatory perspective, one that is |
| Create small, personalized communities for | | | | "emancipatory and empowering for teacher and |
| learning. | | | | student alike, within a context of social justice" |
| Teach a core academic program. | | | | (Symes and Preston, 1997, p.73), and has "a |
| Ensure success for all students. | | | | bifocal commitment to the individual and society" |
| Empower teachers and administrators to make | | | | (Symes and Preston, 1997, p.77). Such an |
| key pedagogical, management, and budgetary | | | | approach attempts to avoid the selective political |
| decisions. | | | | ideologies which play more than a small role in the |
| Staff middle-grades schools with teachers who | | | | "sort and select" system inherent in the separate |
| are specially trained to teach young adolescents. | | | | subject approach (Beane, 1995). |
| Improve academic performance through fostering | | | | Creative expression. |
| the health and fitness of young adolescents. | | | | Within an Integrated Curriculum meanings are |
| Reengage families in the education of young | | | | created by the students and not imposed by |
| adolescents. | | | | adults (Beane, 1991). This leaves room for a great |
| Connect schools with communities. | | | | deal of creative expression by students, |
| Figure 1 from Felner et al, 1997a | | | | particularly when used in conjunction with |
| While each of these aspects is important in middle | | | | constructive pedagogy, project based learning and |
| schooling, some are more important than others. I | | | | authentic assessment. |
| believe that running an integrated curriculum with | | | | Effective Middle Schooling: |
| authentic assessment in a democratic classroom | | | | Effective middle schooling is organized in such a |
| fulfils all of the student developmental needs, and | | | | way that it meets the developmental needs of |
| is much simpler to manage for the average | | | | adolescents. It is democratic in nature, based on |
| classroom teacher. | | | | principles of negotiation. Students and teachers |
| Integrated curriculum is not using a theme | | | | work together in small communities with parents |
| oriented approach and seeing what each subject | | | | and community members, and are responsible for |
| can contribute. Although this is often a good | | | | making decisions about their teaching and learning. |
| starting point, it is not the end product. Curriculum | | | | Together they study issues that are of personal |
| integration involves basing the learning experience | | | | and social significance to them. As they actively |
| on significant issues and problems that have been | | | | create meaning through concrete experiences, |
| collaboratively identified by teachers and students, | | | | they learn about the world around them and how |
| without regard for separate subject boundaries | | | | it operates. In such a context the learning is also |
| (Beane, 1997). It does not ignore subject specific | | | | the assessment, and has value outside the |
| knowledge, but acknowledges that if we start | | | | classroom. Limited time is not an issue, because |
| with the answers instead of the questions then | | | | the schedule is dependent on the learning, not the |
| we miss a vital part of the learning process and | | | | other way around. Professional development |
| end up with an inferior product. It does not teach | | | | takes place continually. |
| maths and English and science, but teaches | | | | Effective middle schooling cannot be achieved just |
| students how to solve problems that involve | | | | by changing the organizational aspects of |
| knowledge from a wide range of sources which | | | | traditional schooling. It requires an ideological |
| may or may not include knowledge from | | | | change on the part of educators and |
| traditional subjects. | | | | administrators alike (Norton and Lewis, 2000). But |
| Integrated curriculum cannot be achieved in a | | | | as Felner et al (1997b) show, for those who |
| classroom which has a traditional authority | | | | persist with change the rewards are many. |